Thursday, July 24, 2014

Geography - Environmental problems, Employment and Industry

Introduction
The environment is our physical surroundings. This includes both human (man-made), social and physical (natural) features. Natural features include soil, the atmosphere, vegetation and wildlife. Human features include housing, transport and industry. Social features include things such as culture, language and political systems.
Geographers are concerned about human action in the environment. Human interference with the environment causes problems such as soil erosion, global warming and acid rain.
You may ask how we as individuals can have an impact on the environment. Our actions can help to increase and decrease the problems highlighted above. For example turning off lights that are not being used helps to reduce global warming. 


What causes acid rain?
Acid rain is caused by the burning of fossil fuels. Burning oil, gas and coal in power stations releases Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere. Burning oil and petrol in motor vehicles puts nitrogen oxides (NOX) into the atmosphere.

These gases mix with water droplets in the atmosphere creating weak solutions of nitric and sulphuric acids. When precipitation occurs these solutions fall as acid rain.
What problems are caused by acid rain?
Acid rain causes a range of problems. Acid rain:
  • increases the acidity levels of rivers, lakes and seas. This can kill aquatic life. Acid rain increases the acidity levels of soils. This can kill vegetation
  • has been found to destroy the roots and leaves of forests in Germany and Scandinavia have been destroyed as the result of acid rain emissions from the UK
  • can erode buildings and monuments (particularly if they are made from limestone)
 What is the greenhouse effect?
To understand global warming you first need to know about the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that controls the balance of heat within the earth's atmosphere. It is the process whereby the natural layer of gases in our atmosphere trap a small percentage of the sun's radiation reflected from the earth's surface. Without the greenhouse effect, the average surface temperature would be about -18 degrees Celsius.
What is global warming?
Global warming is the worldwide warming of the atmosphere.
What causes global warming?
Global warming is caused by the increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and other gases being released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels. These gases add to the natural greenhouse effect. Causing global temperatures to rise.
What problems are caused by global warming?
  • Sea levels will rise due to the melting of the ice caps. This will cause flooding in many low-lying area of the world. These areas include Bangladesh, East Anglia (England) and The Netherlands. 
How can employment be classified?
There are four types of job. These are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary jobs.
Primary jobs involve getting raw materials from the natural environment e.g. Mining, farming and fishing.
Secondary jobs involve making things (manufacturing) e.g. making cars and steel.
Tertiary jobs involve providing a service e.g. teaching and nursing.
Quaternary jobs involve research and development e.g. IT.
Employment Structures
Employment structure means how the workforce is divided up between the three main employment sectors - primary, secondary and tertiary. Employment structures change over time.
Countries in the early stage of development usually have a high percentage of the population in primary employment. This is because most people are engaged in agricultural activities.
As a country begins to develop an industrial base there is an increase in the secondary sector. An increase in machinery on farms means fewer people are needed. People tend to migrate to urban areas to get jobs in factories.
When a country becomes more economically developed there is a greater demand for services such as education, health care and tourism. Therefore the tertiary sector undergoes growth. By this time computers, machinery and robots replace people in the secondary sector hence the decrease in secondary jobs.
Employment structures are usually displayed as pie charts:
image - UK employment structure image - Brazil employment structure
The UK has a low proportion of people working in primary industry. This is partly because of mechanisation. Machinery has taken over jobs in the primary sector. Also, as primary resources have become exhausted (e.g. coal) The UK now imports a considerable amount of its non-renewable resources. The number of people employed in the secondary sector is falling. This is because fewer people are needed to work in factories as robots are taking over jobs. The tertiary sector is the main growth area. Most people work in hospitals, schools, offices and financial services. Also, as people have more free time and become wealthier there is a greater demand for leisure services. Therefore more jobs become available in the tertiary sector. Brazil is a NIC or Newly Industrialised Country. While it is developing its economic base there are still a large number of people employed in primary industries such as farming. There is a large proportion of people employed in tertiary industries. One reason for this is because of the growth of Brazil as a tourist destination. Also, there have been significant improvements in the provision of health care, education and transport.
image - Ghana employment structure
Ghana is an LEDC or Less Economically Developed Country. The majority of people work in the primary sector. This is due to the lack of machinery available in farming, forestry and mining. Farming is very important because people often grow the food they eat. Few people work in secondary industries due to the lack of factories - machinery is too expensive and multi-national companies rely on the raw materials available in Ghana to assist in manufacturing products.
How can employment be classified?
There are four types of job. These are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary jobs.
Primary jobs involve getting raw materials from the natural environment e.g. Mining, farming and fishing.
Secondary jobs involve making things (manufacturing) e.g. making cars and steel.
Tertiary jobs involve providing a service e.g. teaching and nursing.
Quaternary jobs involve research and development e.g. IT.
Employment Structures
Employment structure means how the workforce is divided up between the three main employment sectors - primary, secondary and tertiary. Employment structures change over time.
Countries in the early stage of development usually have a high percentage of the population in primary employment. This is because most people are engaged in agricultural activities.
As a country begins to develop an industrial base there is an increase in the secondary sector. An increase in machinery on farms means fewer people are needed. People tend to migrate to urban areas to get jobs in factories.
When a country becomes more economically developed there is a greater demand for services such as education, health care and tourism. Therefore the tertiary sector undergoes growth. By this time computers, machinery and robots replace people in the secondary sector hence the decrease in secondary jobs.
Employment structures are usually displayed as pie charts:
image - UK employment structure image - Brazil employment structure
The UK has a low proportion of people working in primary industry. This is partly because of mechanisation. Machinery has taken over jobs in the primary sector. Also, as primary resources have become exhausted (e.g. coal) The UK now imports a considerable amount of its non-renewable resources. The number of people employed in the secondary sector is falling. This is because fewer people are needed to work in factories as robots are taking over jobs. The tertiary sector is the main growth area. Most people work in hospitals, schools, offices and financial services. Also, as people have more free time and become wealthier there is a greater demand for leisure services. Therefore more jobs become available in the tertiary sector. Brazil is a NIC or Newly Industrialised Country. While it is developing its economic base there are still a large number of people employed in primary industries such as farming. There is a large proportion of people employed in tertiary industries. One reason for this is because of the growth of Brazil as a tourist destination. Also, there have been significant improvements in the provision of health care, education and transport.
image - Ghana employment structure
Ghana is an LEDC or Less Economically Developed Country. The majority of people work in the primary sector. This is due to the lack of machinery available in farming, forestry and mining. Farming is very important because people often grow the food they eat. Few people work in secondary industries due to the lack of factories - machinery is too expensive and multi-national companies rely on the raw materials available in Ghana to assist in manufacturing products.

There are four types of industry. These are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
Primary industry involves getting raw materials e.g. mining, farming and fishing.
Secondary industry involves manufacturing e.g. making cars and steel.
Tertiary industries provide a service e.g. teaching and nursing.
Quaternary industry involves research and development industries e.g. IT.
Factories have inputs, processes and outputs. Inputs can be the raw materials need to make something. Inputs can also be labour, buildings, capital and machinery. Processes are the things which go on within the factory. This is usually the manufacturing of goods. It can also be design and research - anything needed to make something. Outputs are the things which leave the factory. This can include the finished product, profit or even waste.
There are many factors which affect the location of industry. These include raw materials, labour supply, markets, transport and Government Policy.
MNCs or Multinational companies are large companies which are located in more than one country. Examples include Coca Cola and Nike. 

Farming is an example of a primary industry. Like a factory, a farm can be seen as a system with a series of inputs, processes and outputs.
Inputs can be divided into human and physical factors. Human inputs include labour, capital (money), machinery, seeds, fertiliser and young stock. Physical inputs include climate and weather, soil, relief (shape of the land) and slope.
Processes are the things that go on within the farm. This includes harvesting, ploughing, rearing animals and milking.
Farming systems are determined by the type of farm. Farms can be classified as being arable, pastoral, mixed and market gardening.
Arable farms grow crops. Pastoral farms specialise in rearing animals. Mixed farms are both pastoral and arable.
Farms that have a high level of inputs are intensive. These achieve a high yield per hectare. An example would be arable farming in East Anglia or rice farming in South East Asia.
Those farms that have low input and output per hectare are extensive. An example would be a sheep farm in North Wales or a cattle ranch in Brazil.
Farms can also be classified by what happens to their outputs. On subsistence farms the produce is consumed by the farmer. Any surplus is usually sold to buy other goods. Farms that sell the majority of their produce are known as commercial farms.
Examples of farm types:

 
Extensive
Intensive
Commercial Hill sheep farming in Snowdonia. The poor soils and harsh climate make this area ideal for hill sheep farming. Market gardening in the Netherlands.
Subsistence Shifting cultivation in the Amazon rainforest Nomadic pasturalism in central Africa Rice farming in the Punjab region of India. The system requires a large amount of inputs e.g. labour, seeds and fertilisers. Usually the produce is consumed by the farmers. Any food left over is traded for other food, machinery or other resources.
What is shifting cultivation?
Shifting cultivation is an example of arable, subsistence and extensive farming. It is the traditional form of agriculture in the rainforest. This case study will focus on the Amazonian Indians in South America.
Indians in tribes such as the Quicha and the Kayapo clear small areas of vegetation. They then burn it because the ash provides nutrients for the infertile soil. The land is then farmed for 2-3 years before the Indians move on to another area of the rainforest. This allows the area of rainforest to recover.
 
 What is the CAP?
Common Agricultural Policy The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was introduced after the Second World War. Europe wanted to be self sufficient in its provision of food. The CAP guaranteed farmers a price for their produce. This protected farmers from cheaper imports from outside of Europe.
The CAP led to a huge surplus of food in Europe. Food mountains and lakes were created. In order to reduce these the EU introduced milk quotas and set-aside.
As part of the Milk Quotas farmers are told how much milk they can produce. If farmers produce more than their quota they are fined.
As part of the set-aside scheme farmers have to leave 10-15% of their land uncultivated they are awarded a grant from the EU. 

What has been the the impact of the CAP on the environment?
The CAP has had a significant impact on the environment ·
  • Hedgerows have been removed to increase field sizes to accommodate larger machinery and increase yields. This has led to increased soil erosion and a reduction in wildlife habitats.
  • The increased use of fertilisers and pesticides has caused groundwater supplies to become contaminated. The increase in levels of nitrates in streams and rivers has caused the growth of algae and bacteria. This has reduced oxygen levels in rivers killing fish and insects.

What is the Green Revolution?
The Green Revolution occurred during the 1960's and 1970's. It involved the introduction of High Yielding Varieties (HYV's) of rice and wheat. The aim of the Green Revolution was to increase food production and encourage self-sufficiency in LEDCs.
What are the benefits of the Green Revolution?
The CAP has had a significant impact on the environment ·
  • · In Punjab and Haryana, India, the yields or rice and wheat trebled
What problems have been caused by the Green Revolution?
  • An increase in rural to urban migration
  • Rural Poverty
  • The fertilisers and machinery was often too expensive for farmers
  • Many people were made unemployed by the introduction of machinery 
  •  

Secondary Industry - Hi-Tech Industry

 

What is a footloose industry?
Footloose industries are those that do not have to locate close to raw materials (unlike the early iron and steel industry that had to locate close to iron ore and coal etc). Footloose industries locate in pleasant environments near transport routes and near the markets. An example of a footloose industry would be a hi-tech industry such as computing. Footloose industries have to locate close to research centres like universities. Development in the hi-tech industry happen so fast that companies need to stay up to date to survive e.g. Science Parks around Cambridge. Footloose industries are usually non-polluting and can locate close to residential areas.
What is the Hi-Tech Industry?
A High technology (Hi-tech) industry is one that produces sophisticated products. There is a significant emphasis on research and development. Often the 'raw materials'
are electrical components. Examples of Hi-tech industries include:
  • Computers
  • Telecommunications
  • Aerospace and military equipment
Science Parks
Science Parks are located on the edge of cities in greenfield locations. Many of the firms located in science parks are connected with information, high-technology, and electronic industries. Science parks have direct links with universities for research. They have attractive layouts with grassy areas, ornamental gardens, ponds etc. An example is The Cambridge Science Park.
The Cambridge Science Park
The Cambridge Science Park is on the edge of Cambridge, alongside the M11 and the A10. It is located here because it is very accessible, land values are lower on the edge of an urban area and there is plenty of open space for expansion. A number of companies have links with research departments at Cambridge University. You can find out more about the Cambridge Science Park here

What is a shopping hierarchy?
Shops can be placed into a hierarchy based on the services they provide. At the bottom of the hierarchy are small shops selling low order, convenience goods (e.g. bread and milk). At the top are the shops selling high order goods (e.g. furniture and electrical goods).
What was the British shopping hierarchy of the 1960's and 1970's?
Image - 1970s Shopping Hierachy
The diagram above shows the shopping hierarchy for Britain in the 1960s/70s. At the bottom are corner shops. These sell low order goods. They are greater in number than any other shopping area. Above the corner shops are suburban parades and secondary centres. These sell middle order goods. This is usually a mixture of convenience and specialist goods. There are usually several of these areas within a large settlement. At the top is the CBD (central business district - town/city centre). There is usually only one CBD in a town or city. The CBD contains shops which sell comparison goods (shops containing goods which you will compare the prices of - due to their expense!), luxury and specialist shops.

What is today's British shopping hierarchy?
Image - Modern Shopping Hierachy
Can you spot the difference between today's modern settlement hierarchy with the hierarchy from the 1960's/70's?
The CBD is no longer at the top of the shopping hierarchy It has been superseded by regional shopping centres (e.g. Meadowhall, The Metro Centre and Merryhill). Due to increased mobility (the result of increased car ownership) people can travel further to shops, visit shops with a wider range and volume of stock and buy in bulk.
There have also been other, less obvious, changes in the settlement hierarchy For example the number of corner shops have reduced. This is the result of greater mobility, the limited and often expensive range of goods available and due to more people being paid monthly they buy in bulk from supermarkets.
In some areas CBDs have declined due to competition with regional shopping centres. Dudley is an examples of this. The construction of the Merryhill Shopping Centre has caused huge problems in Dudley the local CBD. Many shops have closed or moved to the shopping centre.

 

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