Thursday, July 24, 2014

Geography - Environmental problems, Employment and Industry

Introduction
The environment is our physical surroundings. This includes both human (man-made), social and physical (natural) features. Natural features include soil, the atmosphere, vegetation and wildlife. Human features include housing, transport and industry. Social features include things such as culture, language and political systems.
Geographers are concerned about human action in the environment. Human interference with the environment causes problems such as soil erosion, global warming and acid rain.
You may ask how we as individuals can have an impact on the environment. Our actions can help to increase and decrease the problems highlighted above. For example turning off lights that are not being used helps to reduce global warming. 


What causes acid rain?
Acid rain is caused by the burning of fossil fuels. Burning oil, gas and coal in power stations releases Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere. Burning oil and petrol in motor vehicles puts nitrogen oxides (NOX) into the atmosphere.

These gases mix with water droplets in the atmosphere creating weak solutions of nitric and sulphuric acids. When precipitation occurs these solutions fall as acid rain.
What problems are caused by acid rain?
Acid rain causes a range of problems. Acid rain:
  • increases the acidity levels of rivers, lakes and seas. This can kill aquatic life. Acid rain increases the acidity levels of soils. This can kill vegetation
  • has been found to destroy the roots and leaves of forests in Germany and Scandinavia have been destroyed as the result of acid rain emissions from the UK
  • can erode buildings and monuments (particularly if they are made from limestone)
 What is the greenhouse effect?
To understand global warming you first need to know about the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that controls the balance of heat within the earth's atmosphere. It is the process whereby the natural layer of gases in our atmosphere trap a small percentage of the sun's radiation reflected from the earth's surface. Without the greenhouse effect, the average surface temperature would be about -18 degrees Celsius.
What is global warming?
Global warming is the worldwide warming of the atmosphere.
What causes global warming?
Global warming is caused by the increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and other gases being released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels. These gases add to the natural greenhouse effect. Causing global temperatures to rise.
What problems are caused by global warming?
  • Sea levels will rise due to the melting of the ice caps. This will cause flooding in many low-lying area of the world. These areas include Bangladesh, East Anglia (England) and The Netherlands. 
How can employment be classified?
There are four types of job. These are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary jobs.
Primary jobs involve getting raw materials from the natural environment e.g. Mining, farming and fishing.
Secondary jobs involve making things (manufacturing) e.g. making cars and steel.
Tertiary jobs involve providing a service e.g. teaching and nursing.
Quaternary jobs involve research and development e.g. IT.
Employment Structures
Employment structure means how the workforce is divided up between the three main employment sectors - primary, secondary and tertiary. Employment structures change over time.
Countries in the early stage of development usually have a high percentage of the population in primary employment. This is because most people are engaged in agricultural activities.
As a country begins to develop an industrial base there is an increase in the secondary sector. An increase in machinery on farms means fewer people are needed. People tend to migrate to urban areas to get jobs in factories.
When a country becomes more economically developed there is a greater demand for services such as education, health care and tourism. Therefore the tertiary sector undergoes growth. By this time computers, machinery and robots replace people in the secondary sector hence the decrease in secondary jobs.
Employment structures are usually displayed as pie charts:
image - UK employment structure image - Brazil employment structure
The UK has a low proportion of people working in primary industry. This is partly because of mechanisation. Machinery has taken over jobs in the primary sector. Also, as primary resources have become exhausted (e.g. coal) The UK now imports a considerable amount of its non-renewable resources. The number of people employed in the secondary sector is falling. This is because fewer people are needed to work in factories as robots are taking over jobs. The tertiary sector is the main growth area. Most people work in hospitals, schools, offices and financial services. Also, as people have more free time and become wealthier there is a greater demand for leisure services. Therefore more jobs become available in the tertiary sector. Brazil is a NIC or Newly Industrialised Country. While it is developing its economic base there are still a large number of people employed in primary industries such as farming. There is a large proportion of people employed in tertiary industries. One reason for this is because of the growth of Brazil as a tourist destination. Also, there have been significant improvements in the provision of health care, education and transport.
image - Ghana employment structure
Ghana is an LEDC or Less Economically Developed Country. The majority of people work in the primary sector. This is due to the lack of machinery available in farming, forestry and mining. Farming is very important because people often grow the food they eat. Few people work in secondary industries due to the lack of factories - machinery is too expensive and multi-national companies rely on the raw materials available in Ghana to assist in manufacturing products.
How can employment be classified?
There are four types of job. These are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary jobs.
Primary jobs involve getting raw materials from the natural environment e.g. Mining, farming and fishing.
Secondary jobs involve making things (manufacturing) e.g. making cars and steel.
Tertiary jobs involve providing a service e.g. teaching and nursing.
Quaternary jobs involve research and development e.g. IT.
Employment Structures
Employment structure means how the workforce is divided up between the three main employment sectors - primary, secondary and tertiary. Employment structures change over time.
Countries in the early stage of development usually have a high percentage of the population in primary employment. This is because most people are engaged in agricultural activities.
As a country begins to develop an industrial base there is an increase in the secondary sector. An increase in machinery on farms means fewer people are needed. People tend to migrate to urban areas to get jobs in factories.
When a country becomes more economically developed there is a greater demand for services such as education, health care and tourism. Therefore the tertiary sector undergoes growth. By this time computers, machinery and robots replace people in the secondary sector hence the decrease in secondary jobs.
Employment structures are usually displayed as pie charts:
image - UK employment structure image - Brazil employment structure
The UK has a low proportion of people working in primary industry. This is partly because of mechanisation. Machinery has taken over jobs in the primary sector. Also, as primary resources have become exhausted (e.g. coal) The UK now imports a considerable amount of its non-renewable resources. The number of people employed in the secondary sector is falling. This is because fewer people are needed to work in factories as robots are taking over jobs. The tertiary sector is the main growth area. Most people work in hospitals, schools, offices and financial services. Also, as people have more free time and become wealthier there is a greater demand for leisure services. Therefore more jobs become available in the tertiary sector. Brazil is a NIC or Newly Industrialised Country. While it is developing its economic base there are still a large number of people employed in primary industries such as farming. There is a large proportion of people employed in tertiary industries. One reason for this is because of the growth of Brazil as a tourist destination. Also, there have been significant improvements in the provision of health care, education and transport.
image - Ghana employment structure
Ghana is an LEDC or Less Economically Developed Country. The majority of people work in the primary sector. This is due to the lack of machinery available in farming, forestry and mining. Farming is very important because people often grow the food they eat. Few people work in secondary industries due to the lack of factories - machinery is too expensive and multi-national companies rely on the raw materials available in Ghana to assist in manufacturing products.

There are four types of industry. These are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
Primary industry involves getting raw materials e.g. mining, farming and fishing.
Secondary industry involves manufacturing e.g. making cars and steel.
Tertiary industries provide a service e.g. teaching and nursing.
Quaternary industry involves research and development industries e.g. IT.
Factories have inputs, processes and outputs. Inputs can be the raw materials need to make something. Inputs can also be labour, buildings, capital and machinery. Processes are the things which go on within the factory. This is usually the manufacturing of goods. It can also be design and research - anything needed to make something. Outputs are the things which leave the factory. This can include the finished product, profit or even waste.
There are many factors which affect the location of industry. These include raw materials, labour supply, markets, transport and Government Policy.
MNCs or Multinational companies are large companies which are located in more than one country. Examples include Coca Cola and Nike. 

Farming is an example of a primary industry. Like a factory, a farm can be seen as a system with a series of inputs, processes and outputs.
Inputs can be divided into human and physical factors. Human inputs include labour, capital (money), machinery, seeds, fertiliser and young stock. Physical inputs include climate and weather, soil, relief (shape of the land) and slope.
Processes are the things that go on within the farm. This includes harvesting, ploughing, rearing animals and milking.
Farming systems are determined by the type of farm. Farms can be classified as being arable, pastoral, mixed and market gardening.
Arable farms grow crops. Pastoral farms specialise in rearing animals. Mixed farms are both pastoral and arable.
Farms that have a high level of inputs are intensive. These achieve a high yield per hectare. An example would be arable farming in East Anglia or rice farming in South East Asia.
Those farms that have low input and output per hectare are extensive. An example would be a sheep farm in North Wales or a cattle ranch in Brazil.
Farms can also be classified by what happens to their outputs. On subsistence farms the produce is consumed by the farmer. Any surplus is usually sold to buy other goods. Farms that sell the majority of their produce are known as commercial farms.
Examples of farm types:

 
Extensive
Intensive
Commercial Hill sheep farming in Snowdonia. The poor soils and harsh climate make this area ideal for hill sheep farming. Market gardening in the Netherlands.
Subsistence Shifting cultivation in the Amazon rainforest Nomadic pasturalism in central Africa Rice farming in the Punjab region of India. The system requires a large amount of inputs e.g. labour, seeds and fertilisers. Usually the produce is consumed by the farmers. Any food left over is traded for other food, machinery or other resources.
What is shifting cultivation?
Shifting cultivation is an example of arable, subsistence and extensive farming. It is the traditional form of agriculture in the rainforest. This case study will focus on the Amazonian Indians in South America.
Indians in tribes such as the Quicha and the Kayapo clear small areas of vegetation. They then burn it because the ash provides nutrients for the infertile soil. The land is then farmed for 2-3 years before the Indians move on to another area of the rainforest. This allows the area of rainforest to recover.
 
 What is the CAP?
Common Agricultural Policy The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was introduced after the Second World War. Europe wanted to be self sufficient in its provision of food. The CAP guaranteed farmers a price for their produce. This protected farmers from cheaper imports from outside of Europe.
The CAP led to a huge surplus of food in Europe. Food mountains and lakes were created. In order to reduce these the EU introduced milk quotas and set-aside.
As part of the Milk Quotas farmers are told how much milk they can produce. If farmers produce more than their quota they are fined.
As part of the set-aside scheme farmers have to leave 10-15% of their land uncultivated they are awarded a grant from the EU. 

What has been the the impact of the CAP on the environment?
The CAP has had a significant impact on the environment ·
  • Hedgerows have been removed to increase field sizes to accommodate larger machinery and increase yields. This has led to increased soil erosion and a reduction in wildlife habitats.
  • The increased use of fertilisers and pesticides has caused groundwater supplies to become contaminated. The increase in levels of nitrates in streams and rivers has caused the growth of algae and bacteria. This has reduced oxygen levels in rivers killing fish and insects.

What is the Green Revolution?
The Green Revolution occurred during the 1960's and 1970's. It involved the introduction of High Yielding Varieties (HYV's) of rice and wheat. The aim of the Green Revolution was to increase food production and encourage self-sufficiency in LEDCs.
What are the benefits of the Green Revolution?
The CAP has had a significant impact on the environment ·
  • · In Punjab and Haryana, India, the yields or rice and wheat trebled
What problems have been caused by the Green Revolution?
  • An increase in rural to urban migration
  • Rural Poverty
  • The fertilisers and machinery was often too expensive for farmers
  • Many people were made unemployed by the introduction of machinery 
  •  

Secondary Industry - Hi-Tech Industry

 

What is a footloose industry?
Footloose industries are those that do not have to locate close to raw materials (unlike the early iron and steel industry that had to locate close to iron ore and coal etc). Footloose industries locate in pleasant environments near transport routes and near the markets. An example of a footloose industry would be a hi-tech industry such as computing. Footloose industries have to locate close to research centres like universities. Development in the hi-tech industry happen so fast that companies need to stay up to date to survive e.g. Science Parks around Cambridge. Footloose industries are usually non-polluting and can locate close to residential areas.
What is the Hi-Tech Industry?
A High technology (Hi-tech) industry is one that produces sophisticated products. There is a significant emphasis on research and development. Often the 'raw materials'
are electrical components. Examples of Hi-tech industries include:
  • Computers
  • Telecommunications
  • Aerospace and military equipment
Science Parks
Science Parks are located on the edge of cities in greenfield locations. Many of the firms located in science parks are connected with information, high-technology, and electronic industries. Science parks have direct links with universities for research. They have attractive layouts with grassy areas, ornamental gardens, ponds etc. An example is The Cambridge Science Park.
The Cambridge Science Park
The Cambridge Science Park is on the edge of Cambridge, alongside the M11 and the A10. It is located here because it is very accessible, land values are lower on the edge of an urban area and there is plenty of open space for expansion. A number of companies have links with research departments at Cambridge University. You can find out more about the Cambridge Science Park here

What is a shopping hierarchy?
Shops can be placed into a hierarchy based on the services they provide. At the bottom of the hierarchy are small shops selling low order, convenience goods (e.g. bread and milk). At the top are the shops selling high order goods (e.g. furniture and electrical goods).
What was the British shopping hierarchy of the 1960's and 1970's?
Image - 1970s Shopping Hierachy
The diagram above shows the shopping hierarchy for Britain in the 1960s/70s. At the bottom are corner shops. These sell low order goods. They are greater in number than any other shopping area. Above the corner shops are suburban parades and secondary centres. These sell middle order goods. This is usually a mixture of convenience and specialist goods. There are usually several of these areas within a large settlement. At the top is the CBD (central business district - town/city centre). There is usually only one CBD in a town or city. The CBD contains shops which sell comparison goods (shops containing goods which you will compare the prices of - due to their expense!), luxury and specialist shops.

What is today's British shopping hierarchy?
Image - Modern Shopping Hierachy
Can you spot the difference between today's modern settlement hierarchy with the hierarchy from the 1960's/70's?
The CBD is no longer at the top of the shopping hierarchy It has been superseded by regional shopping centres (e.g. Meadowhall, The Metro Centre and Merryhill). Due to increased mobility (the result of increased car ownership) people can travel further to shops, visit shops with a wider range and volume of stock and buy in bulk.
There have also been other, less obvious, changes in the settlement hierarchy For example the number of corner shops have reduced. This is the result of greater mobility, the limited and often expensive range of goods available and due to more people being paid monthly they buy in bulk from supermarkets.
In some areas CBDs have declined due to competition with regional shopping centres. Dudley is an examples of this. The construction of the Merryhill Shopping Centre has caused huge problems in Dudley the local CBD. Many shops have closed or moved to the shopping centre.

 

Tuesday, July 22, 2014

INTERNATIONAL DATELINE

INTERNATIONAL DATELINE
The International Date Line sits on the 180º line of longitude in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and is the imaginary line that separates two consecutive calendar days. It is not a perfectly straight line and has been moved slightly over the years to accommodate needs (or requests) of varied countries in the Pacific Ocean. Note how it bends to include all of Kiribati, Samoa, Tonga and Tokelau in the Eastern Hemisphere.

Immediately to the left of the International Date Line the date is always one day ahead of the date (or day) immediately to the right of the International Date Line in the Western Hemisphere.

On the time and date codes shown below, note that Tonga and American Samoa have the same time but are one day apart, as American Samoa is in the Western Hemisphere, on the opposite side of the International Dateline from Tonga. A global Earth view is here.

As you travel further west, note that the time in Fiji is one hour earlier than Tonga. You will also notice that Hawaii, further to the east of American Samoa, is one hour later in time.

So, travel east across the International Date Line results in a day, or 24 hours, being subtracted. Travel west across the International Date Line results in a day being added.


 

UTC and GMT
an update....

The worldwide standard for coordinated universal time, formerly known as GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), is now abbreviated as UTC (Coordinated Universal Time).

Some sources still refer to it as UTC/GMT and some web browsers, e.g. Mozilla Firefox, still display it as GMT.

The UTC Time (shown directly below) is the standard time zone upon which all other worldwide time zones are based. It never observes daylight saving time.

Ring of Fire

The large series of volcanoes (some active) encircling the Pacific Ocean are referred to as being part of the Ring of Fire, and notorious for frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

The Ring of Fire, coinciding with the edges of one of the world's main tectonic plates, (the Pacific Plate) contains over 450 volcanoes and is home to approximately 75% of the world's active volcanoes.

Nearly 90% of the world's earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire; most recently, the devastating quakes in Chile, Japan and New Zealand.

Volcanoes and Earthquakes of note:

  • Christchurch Earthquake, New Zealand
  • Mount Saint Helens, Washington, USA
  • Mount Pinatubo, Philippines
  • Mt. Fuji, Japan
  • Paricutin Volcano, Mexico
  • Santiago Earthquake, Chile
  • Sendai Earthquake, Japan 

Ring of Fire Map, Major World Volcanoes


 


India - Geography - World Atlas

Description (Page 1)

The ancient diamond shaped country of India, the largest region of the Indian Subcontinent, extends from the Himalayan Mountains in the north and south into the tropical reaches of the Indian Ocean. It's the second most populous country in the world, and certainly one of the most intriguing.

This diverse and fertile country, which once included the lands of today's Bangladesh and Pakistan, was plundered over eons of time.

Its history begins some 500,000 years ago as early hominids graced the land, and from 3300 to 1300 BC the Indus River Valley Civilization flourished.

The sophisticated and technologically advanced Mature Harappan period followed, lasting around 700 years before collapsing and giving rise to the Iron Age Vedic Civilization during the second millennium BC.

India and much of Asia were conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia in 530 BC and Alexander the Great in 326 BC. Together the Persian and Greek invasions left a lasting impression on Indian civilization, with the Persian's influencing future forms of government.

The Mauryan dynasty rose to power in 322 BC, and flourished under the leadership of Ashoka the Great - becoming one of the most powerful political and military empires in ancient India.

A succession of weaker kings followed, which contributed to the rapid downfall of the Mauryan dynasty, and by 185 BC the Mauryan dynasty had completely dissolved.

India's "Classical Age" began around the 7th century AD with the Gupta Empire. It was during this time frame that development of India's main spiritual and philosophical systems in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism continued.

The Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, Eastern Ganga dynasty of Orissa, Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, and the Palas of Bengal all fought for control of northern India between the 7th and 9th centuries. But it was the Sena dynasty who prevailed, and assumed control of the Pala Empire, dividing the Gurjara Pratiharas into various states.

These states were the first of the Rajput, who became an array of kingdoms managing to exist in some form or another for nearly a millennium.
Description (Page 2)

Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, swept through the region in 1526, establishing the Mughal Empire - one of the richest single dynasties ever to have existed.

Often employing brutal tactics to overpower their empire, the Mughals ruled a vast amount of the Indian subcontinent, and prospered under Akbar the Great.

The Mughals slowly began to disintegrate throughout the 1700s, with the Indian Rebellion of 1857 that caused their eventual collapse - marking an immense social change over India.

Lines began to blur between commercial and political dominance in the early 18th century, and a number of European trading companies set up coastal outposts for their trading companies, including the East India Company.

In the aftermath of the rebellion a power shift within the British Crown came to light, and subsequently India was colonized and ruled by Britain throughout much of the 19th and 20th centuries.

During the British Raj (the age of ruling over India) the large province of Bengal was split into two halves, with the western half primarily Hindu, and the eastern largely Muslim.

Persistent famines were common during this period, with the worst ever recorded being the Great Famine of 1876-78 in which nearly 10 million perished, followed by one of almost equal proportions in 1899. Despite the widescale loss, the population continued to boom, reaching 389 million people by 1941 - up from 125 million in 1750.

Although the number of British forces in India were small, they managed to control two-thirds of the subcontinent directly.

A push for independence grew steadily in the early 1900s, along with tensions between the Hindus and Muslims. As a minority, the Muslims were cautious, due to the prospect of an almost exclusive Hindu-based government, and tensions between the two flared.

Mohandas Gandhi took the leadership role of the Indian National Congress in 1920, and called for unity between the Hindus and Muslims. Gandhi's approach was that of non-violence, and he was well-known for his restraint and moderation, as well as inspiring movements for civil rights and freedom across the entire world.
  A civil disobedience movement was launched in the late summer of 1942, as a response to Gandhi's call for Indian independence. Following the Second World War, weakened British forces retreated from India, and, in 1947, India declared independence and formed its own country.

Riots broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims, following a controversial division of Punjab and Bengal territories, and spread to several regions within India.

In addition to the riots, one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history occurred, with over 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims migrating through the newly created nations of India and Pakistan.

Throughout the next several decades, India's economy saw a mixture of successes and failures, but continued to remain a democracy with civil liberties. However, the country continues to play host to both rural and urban poverty, and unresolved territorial disputes with China and Pakistan.

During the 1990s economic liberalization began, establishing an extensive urban middle class, and revolutionizing India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.

Home to some of the most significant natural and man-made wonders on the planet, and thus, a powerful exotic tourism magnet, the modern open-door policies of India have put the tourist industry here on the fast-track, as luxury hotels and beach resorts are constantly under construction.

With numerous major languages and hundreds of dialects, dozens and dozens of large cities and over 700,000 villages, India offers both the classic, traditional rituals of its many cultures, and the fast-moving world of the 21st century.

print this map print this map India facts

  • Name: India
    (long form) Republic of India
  • Capital City: New Delhi (249,998 mun. corp. pop.)
    (21,753,386 metro)
  • India Population: 1,220,800,359 (2013 est.)
  • World Populations (all countries)
  • Currency: Indian Rupee (INR)
    (conversion rates)

    Indian Rupee
    20 Indian Rupees
  • Ethnicity: Indo-Aryan 72%, Dravidian 25%, Mongoloid and other 3%
  • GDP total: $4.784 trillion (2012 est.)
  • GDP per capita: $3,900 (2012 est.)
  • Land Sizes
  • Language: Hindi 41%, Bengali 8.1%, Telugu 7.2%, Marathi 7%, Tamil 5.9%, Urdu 5%, Gujarati 4.5%, Kannada 3.7%, Malayalam 3.2%, Oriya 3.2%, Punjabi 2.8%, Assamese 1.3%, Maithili 1.2%, other 5.9%

    Note: English is the subsidiary official language, but is the most important language for national, political, and commercial communication; Hindi is the most widely spoken language and primary tongue of 41% of the people; there are 14 other official languages: Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Sanskrit; Hindustani is a popular variant of Hindi/Urdu spoken widely throughout northern India but is not an official language
  • Largest Cities: (by population) Mumbai (Bombay), Delhi, Calcutta, Bangalore, Chennai (Madras)
  • Name: From the Old Persian word Hindu, the local name for the Indus River
  • National Day: January 26
  • Religion: Hindu 80.5%, Muslim 13.4%, Christian 2.3%, Sikh 1.9%, other 1.8%, unspecified 0.1% 



India landforms

The Himalayas form the highest mountain range in the world, and slope southward into a large fertile plain that covers much of India.

Three mountain ranges extend from the Indus River in the northwest, to the Brahmaputra River in the east, including the Himadri, Himachal and Shivaliks - all with deep canyons gorged by the fast-flowing water.

India's highest point is Kanchenjunga which rises 28,208 ft. (8,598 m).

The land rises slightly into two plateaus, bordered in the central and south by lower mountains (Ghats), that gently slope into narrow coastal plains.

Numerous rivers drain the land, and without question, the Ganges is the heartbeat of India and one of the most significant rivers on the planet. 

USA - Geography


US MAP:

The United States of America, commonly called the United States (US, or USA, or America), consists of fifty states and a federal district. The 48 contiguous states and the federal district of Washington, D.C. are positioned in central North America between Canada and Mexico.

The state of Alaska is west of Canada and east of Russia across the Bering Strait, and the state of Hawaii is in the mid-North Pacific. The country also has five populated and nine unpopulated territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean.

At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with around 315 million people, the United States is the third-largest country by total area and the third-largest by both land area and population.

For extensive information on the geography and landforms of the USA (United States of America) please use this link.

US GEOGRAPHY:

For additional geography details please use the yellow navigation bar at the top of this page.
  • Alaska is America's largest state
  • Rhode Island is America's smallest state
  • California is America's largest state by population
  • Wyoming is America's smallest state by population
  • America's highest point is Mt. McKinley, Alaska
  • America's lowest point is Death Valley, California

US GEOGRAPHY NOTES:

Hawaii (not shown on the large map upper left) is approximately 2,550 miles southwest of Los Angeles in the middle of the North Pacific Ocean. Politically it is part of the United States in North America, but geographically, because of its (isolated location), is not considered part of any continent.

The Great Lakes, shared by the USA and Canada are a chain of 5 large freshwater lakes that form the largest lake group in the world, covering an area of 95,000 sq miles. Once vital to fur trading and regional development in the early history of both countries, the Great Lakes (in modern times) remain a significant transportation route for iron ore, steel, petroleum, grain, American automobiles, and much, much more.

Alaska (not shown on the large map upper left) is a state in the United States, situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with the international boundary with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 4th least populous and the least densely populated of the 50 United States.

United States of America landforms map

famous natives

In general terms, the continental United States is dissected by a vast central plain (the Great Plains), while the massive Rocky Mountain system and many other mountains ranges and hills cover much of the west.

The lower Appalachian Mountains and its assorted ranges front a broad coastal plain that stretches from the far-northeast to the southern Texas coastline on the Gulf of Mexico.

For specific landform details on Alaska and Hawaii, or other U.S. States, follow these links.

Major rivers of the United States include the Colorado, Columbia, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio and the Rio Grande.

Largest lakes (outside of the Great Lakes) include the Great Salt Lake, Utah, and Lake Okeechobee, Florida.

Great Lakes

This chain of 5 large freshwater lakes form the largest lake group in the world, covering an area of 95,000 sq miles.

Once vital to fur trading and regional development in the early history of Canada and the United States, the Great Lakes (in modern times) remain a significant transportation route for iron ore, steel, petroleum, grain, American automobiles, and much, much more.

The Great Lakes have a total shoreline near 10,000 miles, over 350 species of fish, and provide drinking water for over 40 million people.


arrow Lake Superior 82,000 sq km, 31,698 sq miles in size, is the largest fresh water lake in the world. It is about 350 miles (565 km) long and 160 miles (257 km) at its widest point. The deepest point is 1,332 ft, while the average depth is 500 ft.

Shoreline: 2,730 miles (includes islands)

arrow Lake Huron 59,600 sq km, 23,011 sq miles in size, is 206 miles (332 km) long and 183 miles (295 km) at its widest point. The deepest point is 750 ft, while the average depth is 195 ft.

Shoreline: 3,830 miles (includes islands)

arrow Lake Michigan 57,800 sq km, 22,316 sq miles in size, is the largest freshwater lake (totally within) the United States. It is 307 miles (494 km) long and 118 miles (190 km) at its widest point. The deepest point is 925 ft, while the average depth is 279 ft.

Shoreline: 1,640 miles (includes islands)

arrow Lake Erie 25,700 sq km, 9,922 sq miles in size, is 240 miles (386 km) long, and 38-57 miles (61-92 km) wide. The deepest point is 210 ft, while the average depth is 62 ft.

Shoreline: 871 miles (includes islands)

arrow Lake Ontario 18,960 sq km, 7,320 sq miles in size, is about 193 miles (311 km) long and 53 miles (85 km) at its widest point. Because of a low elevation above sea level and depths (500 to 800 ft in some places), it doesn't't freeze in winter, unlike the other lakes in the chain. The deepest point is 802 ft, while the average depth is 283 ft.

Shoreline: 871 miles (includes islands

USA Landforms:
Appalachian Mountains:
The Appalachians, about 1,500 miles in length, extend from central Alabama in the U.S. up through the New England states and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Quebec.

Significant Appalachian ranges include:

  • The Cumberland Mts. in Tennessee
  • The Blue Ridge Mts. in Virginia
  • The Alleghenies in Pennsylvania
  • The Catskills Mts. in New York
  • The Green Mts. in Vermont
  • The White Mts. of New Hampshire
The highest point is Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 ft (2,037 m)

Cascades:
A mountain range stretching from northeastern California across Oregon and Washington. Major peaks included Mt. Hood, Mt. Ranier, and Mt. St. Helens.

Coast Range:
Mountains running along the Pacific Ocean coastlines of California, Oregon, Washington. They also extend along the western border of British Columbia, Canada, and the southern edge of Alaska, all the way to Kenai Peninsula and Kodiak Island.

Coastal Plain:
This area of the southern and southeastern U.S extends to the continental shelf and is generally characterized by level (flat) land with assorted mixed forests. The coastal areas include bayous, deltas, marshes, mud flats and swamps.

Continental Divide:
In North America the Western Continental Divide is an imaginary line that sits atop a continuous ridge of mountain summits that divide the continent into two main drainage areas. Details and map.

Great Plains:
The Great Plains of North America slope east from the Rockies and extend to the edge of the Canadian Shield and the western edges of the Appalachians. The land is generally smooth with large treeless areas and shallow river valleys. Minor hills and mountains are found in the Ozark Plateau of Missouri, and in the Boston Mountains and Ouachita Mountains of northwestern Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma. Sandhills and buttes cover parts of the north central U.S. in Nebraska.

Rocky Mountains:
The Rocky Mountains, about 3,000 miles in length, extend from the U.S State of New Mexico up through the western United States and on into the northernmost reaches of Canada's British Columbia. 

The highest point in the Rockies is Mt. Elbert, located 10 miles southwest of Leadville, Colorado. It stands at 14,433 ft (4,399 meters).
Sierra Nevada:
This mountain range of eastern California is about 400 miles in length. The highest point is Mt. Whitney at 14,494 ft. (4,418 meters).